What is a Malay?
If you live in the region of the Malay Archipelago located at the southeastern tip of continental Asia, this term should be a term you would be familiar with. It is a term used to define a significant group of people in Southeast Asia but it is also a term used to define their language which constitutes a part of their complex identity. That said, I had the opportunity to delve into some literature on the concept of Malay as a racial group or identity and I thought it might be interesting to share the insights I have gathered on this subject which may surprise even those who assumed they understood the meaning of this term or call themselves 'Malay'.
By Looks
By looks, a Malay is often identified as a light brown-skinned individual, of stereotypically Asian height (1.70m for men and 1.65m for women), with black hair, light built, with facial features resembling individuals identifying themselves as Filipinos, Burmese or even Thais.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1725-1840), a famous German scholar, had a more concise description of what he thought a Malay looks like. In his 1775 doctoral dissertation "De generis humani varientate nativa" he wrote : Malay variety. Tawny coloured; hair black, soft, curly, thick and plentiful, head moderately narrowed; forehead slightly swelling; nose full, rather wide, as it were diffuse, end thick; mouth large, upper jaw somewhat prominent and distinct from each other. He classified Malay as a "brown race", one he used on all Austronesian people; from the Philippines and other Pacific islands.
It certainly beats the description of 6th and 7th century Chinese records describing the Champas, Khmers and Malays as Kunlun people; black wavy haired barbarians of mountains and jungles from the remote part of the geographically known world.
By Geography
The bulk of people identifying themselves as Malay lives in the region of the Malay Archipelago located in the southeastern part of Asia. A majority of them concentrates in the area of the Malay Peninsular which is now known as Malaysia but across the thousands of islands in this area, many others also identify themselves as Malay, namely in Singapore, Brunei Darussalam and in parts of Sumatra, Indonesia. In fact, Malay identity and influence extends as far as the island of Madagascar and the Comoro islands in Africa where the main language used, Malagasy, can be considered as a variety of the Malay language. (I learnt a little Malagasy at a Language event one day and I was surprised at how similar it is to Malay!)
Their presence and diasporic spread in these regions are intrinsically linked to history and the sea-faring nature of the Malay people.
By Constitution
By modern standardisation and categorisation, according to Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia, a Malay is one who profess the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the Malay language, conforms to Malay customs and is accepted by society as a Malay. This definition actually leaves a wide perception of who can be a Malay and does not tell us what a Malay looks like. From current relevant societal viewpoints, it could refer to ethnic Malays, Bugis, localised Javanese, Boyanese and other Malay speaking individuals from the Malay Peninsular. In fact, many of such individuals may also adopt dual identities, that of Bugis and Malay, for example.
By Genetics
The Malay genes are a mix of a mainly proto-Malay population helming from Yunnan, China defined by their Austroasiatic language and a more recent Austronesian population coming from Taiwan defined by their Austronesian language. Their genes also indicate contact with South Asia, West Asia and austroloids, people who are part of the first expansion of Homo Sapiens out of Africa. The region of Southeast Asia is a region located in the middle of the sea trade route between major ancient powerhouses such as India and China. As such, contact between diverse groups of people are a given and this explains the heterogeneity of the Malay DNA.
The Malay Identity
Race and identity are flexible and intangible constructs created in the collective human mind. Just as a person is able to move from one job to another, thereby obtaining different work identities (from postman to bartender), a person too have the possibility to choose their race, in theory. However, as race is often (inaccurately) attributed to how one looks, racial identity takes on a more relativistic form based on, among other things, facial features and skin colour.
An easy way to debunk "race" as defined by "genes" or "physical features" is to simply look at genetic variation studies and the history of past empires. In a landmark genetic study conducted in the US, it have been found that there are more genetic variation within a racial group than between racial groups. And if one asks a Nicobar Islander, Filipino and a Malay person to stand side by side to one another, you will have an extremely hard time to identify who is who unless someone starts speaking. (Even then, language can be learnt.)
On the other hand, we can look at ancient empires such as for example, Ancient Rome. Who are the Romans? Historically, they came from an Italic settlement in the Italian peninsular circa 8th Century BC. After hundreds of years and expansion, they defeated their neighbouring cities and villages and eventually replaced and assimilated the existing Ancient Greek civilisation. After centuries, a phenomenon happened. Those who had opposed the Romans - the Gauls, the Greeks, the Macedonians etc-, came to call themselves as Romans. The process is long, but eventually, this became a reality believed by everybody. This shows the temporality and fluidity of identity. Thus, the only explanation for the creation and adoption of the Malay identity would have to be explained by cultural factors and history.
On the other hand, we can look at ancient empires such as for example, Ancient Rome. Who are the Romans? Historically, they came from an Italic settlement in the Italian peninsular circa 8th Century BC. After hundreds of years and expansion, they defeated their neighbouring cities and villages and eventually replaced and assimilated the existing Ancient Greek civilisation. After centuries, a phenomenon happened. Those who had opposed the Romans - the Gauls, the Greeks, the Macedonians etc-, came to call themselves as Romans. The process is long, but eventually, this became a reality believed by everybody. This shows the temporality and fluidity of identity. Thus, the only explanation for the creation and adoption of the Malay identity would have to be explained by cultural factors and history.
By History and Anthropological studies
The concept of Malay as a race is actually a very recent innovation. It came about and is developed primarily by Western influence that arrived in this region around the time of the Melakan Empire in the 14th Century and after its fall in 1511 as a means for categorizing between the locals and the foreigners who mostly came to trade. Melaka is a port city and the strength and richness of the empire almost entirely depends on the sea trade. Melaka is often portrayed as the epitome or golden age of the Malay people and understanding the Malaccan Sultanate is essential in understanding the Malay identity.
Melaka is founded by Parameswara in around 1402 at the mouth of the Bertram river located on the Malay peninsular. He was the last King of Singapore, the last vestige of the ancient Srivijayan Kingdom who had fled upon the Majapahit Empire's invasion of Singapore around 1398. During the early years of the Melakan Empire, the people who took up residency in the port city do not call themselves Malay and only a small proportion of them called themselves that, perhaps a class of people who had significant political and economic clout in the city. In fact, 20 languages were recorded to be spoken in the city by 1411 with people identifying themselves as Bugis, Javanese, Minangkabaus, Chinese etc.
It took years before the Malay identity finally is established to mean the 'locals' who had taken up permanent residence in Melaka for some time and the 'foreigners'. This phenomena was recorded by Dutch traders around the 16th century in their observation of Melaka. When looking into trade records, locals were increasingly and often termed as Malays while those who helmed from regions outside of the Melakan Empire were categorised as non-Malays. The Malay identity eventually gets latched onto the physical features and attributes of the majority of the local people who may have come from many other areas in the Malay Archipelago.
Just like the Roman Empire, people can choose to be identified with an identity that they feel is strong and significant but also an identity that they CAN be a part of. The Melakan Empire, with its richness and influence in the region would definitely had attracted the admiration of the rural population in the region. The influence and power of the Melakan Empire is such that the Malay language became the lingua fraca of most of the Malay Archipelago, eventually even making Indonesia adopt the language as its official national language despite most of the population identifying themselves as Javanese. Furthermore, the logical categorization brought about by trade (locals vs foreigners) would mean that it is possible for a Bugis, for example to be a Malay, thus they can adopt a Malay identity. But not all with the same physical features and attributes can consider themselves Malay.
Court Culture
A very significant part of the Malay identity lies in the court culture developed during the Melakan Empire and further promulgated and propagandized after Melaka's fall in 1511 as a rallying cry against the colonial powers that had usurped the former Malaccan Sultanate. As the Melakan Empire flourished and expanded its influence across the Malay Archipelago, even rivalling and winning the once great Majapahit Empire in the region, the arts and culture soon flourished and a court culture based in Melaka soon developed. Poetic traditions, literature and 'adat' or ''tradition' became a reality and an essential identity of the Melakan Empire and the Malay identity. In truth, the majority of the Malay then are not part of the ruling court culture and are illiterate; thus they are simply subjects of a recognised king. But the people recognised this court culture and system and are filial to the governing power of the kings.
Their belief in the rights of the court culture (and king) often translates to answering the war cries and rallying cries of the Malay kings to defend and fight for them. A particularly well-known figure in Malay folklore and history (sometimes history and lore gets intertwined), is that of the legendary 'laksamana' or commander, Hang Tuah. The story of Hang Tuah is an extremely lengthy one compiled into an enormous script titled 'Hikayat Hang Tuah' and includes his childhood, appointment as commander of the Melakan Army and his many adventures. Hang Tuah became the face of the Johore Sultanate (the remnants of the Melakan Empire after the last ruler fled south to Johor) to rally the people who still believed in the rights of the 'local' king against the foreign invaders, the Portuguese. In fact, the Malay Annals, or (Sejarah Melayu), the manuscript that details the supposed history of the Malay people, was written after the fall of the Melakan Empire. Thus, after the defeat in 1511, Malay identity suddenly gained a special place in the hearts of the native commoners as they viewed themselves as belonging to a more 'native' and 'organic' political system which better represents them than the system introduced by the new colonial power.
Adat and Traditions
The 'adat' or traditions, explains the complex ways for a Malay to carry oneself in front of people or in front of their king. It is influenced by both history and contact with surrounding empires such as the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese Kingdom to the north. As arts and culture were allowed to flourish, the traditions followed by the Malay people becomes more refined and realised such that it soon became a way of life, not only to the ruling courtesans who spread these beliefs but to the average commoners. It became a sort of marker and symbol of pride as well as having the effect of viewing oneself as being 'cultured'. In particular importance is the idea of duty to an authority but also of being elegant and polite.
Spread of Malay Identity
In due time, over the course of around 200 years, anyone who is influenced by the political system of the Malaccan Sultanate (for example, those in Indonesia who became part of the Melakan Empire and had created their smaller courts modelled after the Melakan system) and subscribe to the traditions and culture of the Malay people soon regard themselves as Malay. Thus, in Brunei now, there is still a King following very much the old traditions created during the 15th century and the people identify themselves as Bruneian Malay. This also explains the significance of the system of Malay kings in Malaysia now and why they must exist despite their obsoleteness in the modern context; they form the central idea behind the Malay identity. The recognition of the Malay style of court culture and traditions also separates those who do not subscribe to this form of ruling as non-Malays. Thus, Filipinos, Thais or other Pacific Islanders have never identified themselves as Malay.
Towards a National Identity
The fact that the Melakan Empire fall only about 100 years after its founding meant that the Malay identity never really took root as the supreme racial identity for all the people in this region. It also meant that the smaller racial groups such as the Bugis, Boyanese and Minagkabaus fail to lose their local identities (like the Gauls to Anciant Rome) and is allowed to exist and even develop. Through the 19th century, the phenomenon of nationalism starts to take root in this region brought about by no less, the colonial powers that had came to dominate and control the region. At first, divided into colonies owned by different colonial powers, when independence came, the artificial political division translates into different countries each with their own national identity.
The story of the 20th century is the story of new identity formation centred around the different 'countries' such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. While history and legislations have worked to enforce past identity markers to categorise people, we are moving into a phase where people would soon be more comfortable identifying themselves as part of a 'country' rather than a 'race'. From past history of ancient civilizations, it would only be a matter of time before 'Malay' loses its own value and significance as a racial identity marker and is instead, identified by the country, Malaysia.
In Singapore, interestingly, it could be our legislation to identify race as a demarcation of groups of people that may have ensured the prevalence of such identity markers. Without such constant demarcation, it might result in chaos if the different cultures cannot somehow merge due to innate differences or it might actually blend into a beautiful uniquely 'Singaporean' identity.
Racial categorization have resulted in a shifting of identities in Singaporean society. A well-studied example is the grouping of distinct Chinese communities helmed by various clan associations into a homogenous pan-Chinese identity. Another would be the grouping of distinct 'local' identities such as the Boyanese or Javanese into a pan-Malay identity, thus, seemingly continuing the work of the Melakan Empire.
The Malay Term
After an explanation on the conception of Malay as an identity marker, perhaps we can look at the term 'Malay' itself. Etymologically, Malay is an English term and it comes from the Malay word, Melayu, which is still being used today. There are two possible etymological reconstruction for this word. 'Melayu' may have been derived from Old Malay, an Austronesian language, with the sub-parts 'me-' + 'laju' meaning 'to accelerate' or it could be from Sanskrit, an Indo-European Language, with the meaning 'mountains'. Either way, the Malay Annals attribute the name as deriving from the Melayu River found in Sumatra along the important sea route which Melaka gained their riches from. Along this river is said to be the fabled mountain, Gunung Sri Guntang, where the story of Malay kings ancestors are mainly centred upon. Furthermore, circa 6-7th Century (thus way before the Malaccan Empire), there exists a kingdom called 'Melayu Kingdom' in the region which is said to be at some point, part of the Srivijayan kingdoms. The term, thus, have existed a long time before the racial identity marker have come to exist.
Thus is a brief overview of the man-made phenomena that is the 'Malay identity'. This was part of the background literature I was working on for an essay on the Malay Annals and I thought it might be interesting especially for a Malay person to understand their roots. :)
The concept of Malay as a race is actually a very recent innovation. It came about and is developed primarily by Western influence that arrived in this region around the time of the Melakan Empire in the 14th Century and after its fall in 1511 as a means for categorizing between the locals and the foreigners who mostly came to trade. Melaka is a port city and the strength and richness of the empire almost entirely depends on the sea trade. Melaka is often portrayed as the epitome or golden age of the Malay people and understanding the Malaccan Sultanate is essential in understanding the Malay identity.
Melaka is founded by Parameswara in around 1402 at the mouth of the Bertram river located on the Malay peninsular. He was the last King of Singapore, the last vestige of the ancient Srivijayan Kingdom who had fled upon the Majapahit Empire's invasion of Singapore around 1398. During the early years of the Melakan Empire, the people who took up residency in the port city do not call themselves Malay and only a small proportion of them called themselves that, perhaps a class of people who had significant political and economic clout in the city. In fact, 20 languages were recorded to be spoken in the city by 1411 with people identifying themselves as Bugis, Javanese, Minangkabaus, Chinese etc.
It took years before the Malay identity finally is established to mean the 'locals' who had taken up permanent residence in Melaka for some time and the 'foreigners'. This phenomena was recorded by Dutch traders around the 16th century in their observation of Melaka. When looking into trade records, locals were increasingly and often termed as Malays while those who helmed from regions outside of the Melakan Empire were categorised as non-Malays. The Malay identity eventually gets latched onto the physical features and attributes of the majority of the local people who may have come from many other areas in the Malay Archipelago.
Just like the Roman Empire, people can choose to be identified with an identity that they feel is strong and significant but also an identity that they CAN be a part of. The Melakan Empire, with its richness and influence in the region would definitely had attracted the admiration of the rural population in the region. The influence and power of the Melakan Empire is such that the Malay language became the lingua fraca of most of the Malay Archipelago, eventually even making Indonesia adopt the language as its official national language despite most of the population identifying themselves as Javanese. Furthermore, the logical categorization brought about by trade (locals vs foreigners) would mean that it is possible for a Bugis, for example to be a Malay, thus they can adopt a Malay identity. But not all with the same physical features and attributes can consider themselves Malay.
Court Culture
A very significant part of the Malay identity lies in the court culture developed during the Melakan Empire and further promulgated and propagandized after Melaka's fall in 1511 as a rallying cry against the colonial powers that had usurped the former Malaccan Sultanate. As the Melakan Empire flourished and expanded its influence across the Malay Archipelago, even rivalling and winning the once great Majapahit Empire in the region, the arts and culture soon flourished and a court culture based in Melaka soon developed. Poetic traditions, literature and 'adat' or ''tradition' became a reality and an essential identity of the Melakan Empire and the Malay identity. In truth, the majority of the Malay then are not part of the ruling court culture and are illiterate; thus they are simply subjects of a recognised king. But the people recognised this court culture and system and are filial to the governing power of the kings.
Their belief in the rights of the court culture (and king) often translates to answering the war cries and rallying cries of the Malay kings to defend and fight for them. A particularly well-known figure in Malay folklore and history (sometimes history and lore gets intertwined), is that of the legendary 'laksamana' or commander, Hang Tuah. The story of Hang Tuah is an extremely lengthy one compiled into an enormous script titled 'Hikayat Hang Tuah' and includes his childhood, appointment as commander of the Melakan Army and his many adventures. Hang Tuah became the face of the Johore Sultanate (the remnants of the Melakan Empire after the last ruler fled south to Johor) to rally the people who still believed in the rights of the 'local' king against the foreign invaders, the Portuguese. In fact, the Malay Annals, or (Sejarah Melayu), the manuscript that details the supposed history of the Malay people, was written after the fall of the Melakan Empire. Thus, after the defeat in 1511, Malay identity suddenly gained a special place in the hearts of the native commoners as they viewed themselves as belonging to a more 'native' and 'organic' political system which better represents them than the system introduced by the new colonial power.
Adat and Traditions
The 'adat' or traditions, explains the complex ways for a Malay to carry oneself in front of people or in front of their king. It is influenced by both history and contact with surrounding empires such as the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese Kingdom to the north. As arts and culture were allowed to flourish, the traditions followed by the Malay people becomes more refined and realised such that it soon became a way of life, not only to the ruling courtesans who spread these beliefs but to the average commoners. It became a sort of marker and symbol of pride as well as having the effect of viewing oneself as being 'cultured'. In particular importance is the idea of duty to an authority but also of being elegant and polite.
Spread of Malay Identity
In due time, over the course of around 200 years, anyone who is influenced by the political system of the Malaccan Sultanate (for example, those in Indonesia who became part of the Melakan Empire and had created their smaller courts modelled after the Melakan system) and subscribe to the traditions and culture of the Malay people soon regard themselves as Malay. Thus, in Brunei now, there is still a King following very much the old traditions created during the 15th century and the people identify themselves as Bruneian Malay. This also explains the significance of the system of Malay kings in Malaysia now and why they must exist despite their obsoleteness in the modern context; they form the central idea behind the Malay identity. The recognition of the Malay style of court culture and traditions also separates those who do not subscribe to this form of ruling as non-Malays. Thus, Filipinos, Thais or other Pacific Islanders have never identified themselves as Malay.
Towards a National Identity
The fact that the Melakan Empire fall only about 100 years after its founding meant that the Malay identity never really took root as the supreme racial identity for all the people in this region. It also meant that the smaller racial groups such as the Bugis, Boyanese and Minagkabaus fail to lose their local identities (like the Gauls to Anciant Rome) and is allowed to exist and even develop. Through the 19th century, the phenomenon of nationalism starts to take root in this region brought about by no less, the colonial powers that had came to dominate and control the region. At first, divided into colonies owned by different colonial powers, when independence came, the artificial political division translates into different countries each with their own national identity.
The story of the 20th century is the story of new identity formation centred around the different 'countries' such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. While history and legislations have worked to enforce past identity markers to categorise people, we are moving into a phase where people would soon be more comfortable identifying themselves as part of a 'country' rather than a 'race'. From past history of ancient civilizations, it would only be a matter of time before 'Malay' loses its own value and significance as a racial identity marker and is instead, identified by the country, Malaysia.
In Singapore, interestingly, it could be our legislation to identify race as a demarcation of groups of people that may have ensured the prevalence of such identity markers. Without such constant demarcation, it might result in chaos if the different cultures cannot somehow merge due to innate differences or it might actually blend into a beautiful uniquely 'Singaporean' identity.
Racial categorization have resulted in a shifting of identities in Singaporean society. A well-studied example is the grouping of distinct Chinese communities helmed by various clan associations into a homogenous pan-Chinese identity. Another would be the grouping of distinct 'local' identities such as the Boyanese or Javanese into a pan-Malay identity, thus, seemingly continuing the work of the Melakan Empire.
The Malay Term
After an explanation on the conception of Malay as an identity marker, perhaps we can look at the term 'Malay' itself. Etymologically, Malay is an English term and it comes from the Malay word, Melayu, which is still being used today. There are two possible etymological reconstruction for this word. 'Melayu' may have been derived from Old Malay, an Austronesian language, with the sub-parts 'me-' + 'laju' meaning 'to accelerate' or it could be from Sanskrit, an Indo-European Language, with the meaning 'mountains'. Either way, the Malay Annals attribute the name as deriving from the Melayu River found in Sumatra along the important sea route which Melaka gained their riches from. Along this river is said to be the fabled mountain, Gunung Sri Guntang, where the story of Malay kings ancestors are mainly centred upon. Furthermore, circa 6-7th Century (thus way before the Malaccan Empire), there exists a kingdom called 'Melayu Kingdom' in the region which is said to be at some point, part of the Srivijayan kingdoms. The term, thus, have existed a long time before the racial identity marker have come to exist.
Thus is a brief overview of the man-made phenomena that is the 'Malay identity'. This was part of the background literature I was working on for an essay on the Malay Annals and I thought it might be interesting especially for a Malay person to understand their roots. :)
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